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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Acoustics</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Acoustics_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Acoustics (disambiguation)">Acoustics (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<p><b>Acoustics</b> is a branch of <a href="Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> that deals with the study of <a href="Mechanical_wave" title="Mechanical wave">mechanical waves</a> in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as <a href="Vibration" title="Vibration">vibration</a>, <a href="Sound" title="Sound">sound</a>, <a href="Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a> and <a href="Infrasound" title="Infrasound">infrasound</a>. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an <b>acoustician</b> while someone working in the field of acoustics technology may be called an <a href="Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">acoustical engineer</a>. The application of acoustics is present in almost all aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the audio and <a href="Noise_control" title="Noise control">noise control</a> industries.

</p><p><a href="Hearing_(sense)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearing (sense)">Hearing</a> is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world and <a href="Speech" title="Speech">speech</a> is one of the most distinctive characteristics of human development and culture. Accordingly, the science of acoustics spreads across many facets of human society—music, medicine, architecture, industrial production, warfare and more. Likewise, animal species such as songbirds and frogs use sound and hearing as a key element of mating rituals or for marking territories. Art, craft, science and technology have provoked one another to advance the whole, as in many other fields of knowledge. <a href="Robert_Bruce_Lindsay" title="Robert Bruce Lindsay">Robert Bruce Lindsay</a>'s "Wheel of Acoustics" is a well-accepted overview of the various fields in acoustics.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etymology">Etymology</h3></div>

<p>The word "acoustic" is derived from the <a href="Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> word ἀκουστικός (<i>akoustikos</i>), meaning "of or for hearing, ready to hear"<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that from ἀκουστός (<i>akoustos</i>), "heard, audible",<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which in turn derives from the verb ἀκούω(<i>akouo</i>), "I hear".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The Latin synonym is "sonic", after which the term <b>sonics</b> used to be a synonym for acoustics<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later a branch of acoustics.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Frequency" title="Frequency">Frequencies</a> above and below the <a href="Audio_frequency" title="Audio frequency">audible range</a> are called "<a href="Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasonic</a>" and "<a href="Infrasonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrasonic">infrasonic</a>", respectively.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_research_in_acoustics">Early research in acoustics</h3></div>

<p>In the 6th century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher <a href="Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> wanted to know why some <a href="Interval_(music)" title="Interval (music)">combinations of musical sounds</a> seemed more beautiful than others, and he found answers in terms of numerical ratios representing the <a href="Harmonic" title="Harmonic">harmonic</a> <a href="Overtone_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Overtone series">overtone series</a> on a string. He is reputed to have observed that when the lengths of vibrating strings are expressible as ratios of integers (e.g. 2 to 3, 3 to 4), the tones produced will be harmonious, and the smaller the integers the more harmonious the sounds. For example, a string of a certain length would sound particularly harmonious with a string of twice the length (other factors being equal). In modern parlance, if a string sounds the note C when plucked, a string twice as long will sound a C an octave lower. In one system of <a href="Musical_tuning" title="Musical tuning">musical tuning</a>, the tones in between are then given by 16:9 for D, 8:5 for E, 3:2 for F, 4:3 for G, 6:5 for A, and 16:15 for B, in ascending order.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BC) understood that sound consisted of compressions and rarefactions of air which "falls upon and strikes the air which is next to it...",<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a very good expression of the nature of <a href="Wave" title="Wave">wave</a> motion. <i><a href="On_Things_Heard" title="On Things Heard">On Things Heard</a></i>, generally ascribed to <a href="Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a>, states that the pitch is related to the frequency of vibrations of the air and to the speed of sound.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In about 20 BC, the Roman architect and engineer <a href="Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> wrote a treatise on the acoustic properties of theaters including discussion of interference, echoes, and reverberation—the beginnings of <a href="Architectural_acoustics" title="Architectural acoustics">architectural acoustics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Book V of his <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a></i></span> (<i>The Ten Books of Architecture</i>) Vitruvius describes sound as a wave comparable to a water wave extended to three dimensions, which, when interrupted by obstructions, would flow back and break up following waves. He described the ascending seats in ancient theaters as designed to prevent this deterioration of sound and also recommended bronze vessels (echea) of appropriate sizes be placed in theaters to resonate with the fourth, fifth and so on, up to the double octave, in order to resonate with the more desirable, harmonious notes.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>During the <a href="Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic golden age</a>, <a href="Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī">Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a> (973–1048) is believed to have postulated that the speed of sound was much slower than the speed of light.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<p>The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during and after the <a href="Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>. Mainly <a href="Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (1564–1642) but also <a href="Marin_Mersenne" title="Marin Mersenne">Marin Mersenne</a> (1588–1648), independently, discovered the complete <a href="Mersenne's_laws" title="Mersenne's laws">laws of vibrating strings</a> (completing what Pythagoras and Pythagoreans had started 2000 years earlier). Galileo wrote "Waves are produced by the <a href="Vibration" title="Vibration">vibrations</a> of a sonorous body, which spread through the air, bringing to the tympanum of the <a href="Ear" title="Ear">ear</a> a stimulus which the mind interprets as sound", a remarkable statement that points to the beginnings of physiological and psychological acoustics. Experimental measurements of the <a href="Speed_of_sound" title="Speed of sound">speed of sound</a> in air were carried out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a number of investigators, prominently Mersenne. Inspired by Mersenne's <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (<i>Universal Harmony</i>) or 1634, the Rome-based Jesuit scholar <a href="Athanasius_Kircher" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a> undertook research in acoustics.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kircher published two major books on acoustics: the <i><a href="Musurgia_Universalis" title="Musurgia Universalis">Musurgia universalis</a></i> (<i>Universal Music-Making</i>) in 1650<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <i><a href="Phonurgia_Nova" title="Phonurgia Nova">Phonurgia nova</a></i> (<i>New Sound-Making</i>) in 1673.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, <a href="Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> (1642–1727) derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of <a href="Physical_acoustics" title="Physical acoustics">physical acoustics</a> (<a href="Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia</a>, 1687).

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_of_Enlightenment_and_onward">Age of Enlightenment and onward</h3></div>

<p>Substantial progress in acoustics, resting on firmer mathematical and physical concepts, was made during the eighteenth century by <a href="Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Euler</a> (1707–1783), <a href="Joseph-Louis_Lagrange" title="Joseph-Louis Lagrange">Lagrange</a> (1736–1813), and <a href="Jean_le_Rond_d'Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">d'Alembert</a> (1717–1783). During this era, continuum physics, or field theory, began to receive a definite mathematical structure. The wave equation emerged in a number of contexts, including the propagation of sound in air.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the nineteenth century the major figures of mathematical acoustics were <a href="Helmholtz" class="mw-redirect" title="Helmholtz">Helmholtz</a> in Germany, who consolidated the field of physiological acoustics, and <a href="John_Strutt%2C_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a> in England, who combined the previous knowledge with his own copious contributions to the field in his monumental work <i>The Theory of Sound</i> (1877). Also in the 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy between electricity and acoustics.

</p><p>The twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large body of scientific knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application was <a href="Wallace_Clement_Sabine" title="Wallace Clement Sabine">Sabine</a>'s groundbreaking work in architectural acoustics, and many others followed. Underwater acoustics was used for detecting submarines in the first World War. <a href="Sound_recording" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound recording">Sound recording</a> and the telephone played important roles in a global transformation of society. Sound measurement and analysis reached new levels of accuracy and sophistication through the use of electronics and computing. The ultrasonic frequency range enabled wholly new kinds of application in medicine and industry. New kinds of transducers (generators and receivers of acoustic energy) were invented and put to use.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:286px;max-width:286px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader" style="text-align:left/right/center"><a href="Jay_Pritzker_Pavilion" title="Jay Pritzker Pavilion">Jay Pritzker Pavilion</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:180px;max-width:180px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left/right/center">At <a href="Jay_Pritzker_Pavilion" title="Jay Pritzker Pavilion">Jay Pritzker Pavilion</a>, a <a href="LARES" title="LARES">LARES</a> system is combined with a zoned <a href="Sound_reinforcement_system" title="Sound reinforcement system">sound reinforcement system</a>, both suspended on an overhead steel trellis, to synthesize an indoor acoustic environment outdoors.</div></div></div></div>

<p>Acoustics is defined by <a href="ANSI/ASA_S1.1-2013" title="ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013">ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013</a> as "(a) Science of <a href="Sound" title="Sound">sound</a>, including its production, transmission, and effects, including biological and psychological effects. (b) Those qualities of a room that, together, determine its character with respect to auditory effects."

</p><p>The study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation and reception of mechanical waves and vibrations.

</p>

<p>The steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or process. There are many kinds of cause, both natural and volitional. There are many kinds of transduction process that convert energy from some other form into sonic energy, producing a sound wave. There is one fundamental equation that describes sound wave propagation, the <a href="Acoustic_wave_equation" title="Acoustic wave equation">acoustic wave equation</a>, but the phenomena that emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave carries energy throughout the propagating medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again into other forms, in ways that again may be natural and/or volitionally contrived. The final effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the biological or volitional domains. The five basic steps are found equally well whether we are talking about an <a href="Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a>, a submarine using sonar to locate its foe, or a band playing in a rock concert.

</p><p>The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within the domain of physical acoustics. In <a href="Fluid" title="Fluid">fluids</a>, sound propagates primarily as a <a href="Longitudinal_wave" title="Longitudinal wave">pressure wave</a>. In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including <a href="Longitudinal_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Longitudinal waves">longitudinal waves</a>, <a href="Transverse_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse waves">transverse waves</a> and <a href="Surface_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface waves">surface waves</a>.

</p><p>Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave and how the wave interacts with the environment. This interaction can be described as either a <a href="Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>, <a href="Interference_(wave_propagation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interference (wave propagation)">interference</a> or a <a href="Reflection_(physics)" title="Reflection (physics)">reflection</a> or a mix of the three. If several <a href="Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">media</a> are present, a <a href="Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a> can also occur. Transduction processes are also of special importance to acoustics.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fundamental_concepts">Fundamental concepts</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wave_propagation:_pressure_levels">Wave propagation: pressure levels</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Sound_pressure" title="Sound pressure">Sound pressure</a></div>

<p>In fluids such as air and water, sound waves propagate as disturbances in the ambient pressure level. While this disturbance is usually small, it is still noticeable to the human ear. The smallest sound that a person can hear, known as the <a href="Absolute_threshold_of_hearing" title="Absolute threshold of hearing">threshold of hearing</a>, is nine orders of magnitude smaller than the ambient pressure. The <a href="Loudness" title="Loudness">loudness</a> of these disturbances is related to the <a href="Sound_pressure_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound pressure level">sound pressure level</a> (SPL) which is measured on a logarithmic scale in decibels.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wave_propagation:_frequency">Wave propagation: frequency</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Sound#Frequency" title="Sound">Sound § Frequency</a></div>

<p>Physicists and acoustic engineers tend to discuss sound pressure levels in terms of frequencies, partly because this is how our <a href="Ears" class="mw-redirect" title="Ears">ears</a> interpret sound. What we experience as "higher pitched" or "lower pitched" sounds are pressure vibrations having a higher or lower number of cycles per second. In a common technique of acoustic measurement, acoustic signals are sampled in time, and then presented in more meaningful forms such as octave bands or time frequency plots. Both of these popular methods are used to analyze sound and better understand the acoustic phenomenon.

</p><p>The entire spectrum can be divided into three sections: audio, ultrasonic, and infrasonic. The audio range falls between 20 <a href="Hertz" title="Hertz">Hz</a> and 20,000 Hz. This range is important because its frequencies can be detected by the human ear. This range has a number of applications, including speech communication and music. The ultrasonic range refers to the very high frequencies: 20,000 Hz and higher. This range has shorter wavelengths which allow better resolution in imaging technologies. Medical applications such as <a href="Medical_ultrasonography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical ultrasonography">ultrasonography</a> and elastography rely on the ultrasonic frequency range. On the other end of the spectrum, the lowest frequencies are known as the infrasonic range. These frequencies can be used to study geological phenomena such as earthquakes.

</p><p>Analytic instruments such as the <a href="Spectrum_analyzer" title="Spectrum analyzer">spectrum analyzer</a> facilitate visualization and measurement of acoustic signals and their properties. The <a href="Spectrogram" title="Spectrogram">spectrogram</a> produced by such an instrument is a graphical display of the time varying pressure level and frequency profiles which give a specific acoustic signal its defining character.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transduction_in_acoustics">Transduction in acoustics</h3></div>

<p>A <a href="Transducer" title="Transducer">transducer</a> is a device for converting one form of energy into another. In an electroacoustic context, this means converting sound energy into electrical energy (or vice versa). Electroacoustic transducers include <a href="Loudspeaker" title="Loudspeaker">loudspeakers</a>, <a href="Microphone" title="Microphone">microphones</a>, <a href="Particle_velocity" title="Particle velocity">particle velocity</a> sensors, <a href="Hydrophone" title="Hydrophone">hydrophones</a> and <a href="Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a> projectors. These devices convert a sound wave to or from an electric signal. The most widely used transduction principles are <a href="Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>, <a href="Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">electrostatics</a> and <a href="Piezoelectricity" title="Piezoelectricity">piezoelectricity</a>.

</p><p>The transducers in most common loudspeakers (e.g. <a href="Woofer" title="Woofer">woofers</a> and <a href="Tweeter" title="Tweeter">tweeters</a>), are electromagnetic devices that generate waves using a suspended diaphragm driven by an electromagnetic <a href="Voice_coil" title="Voice coil">voice coil</a>, sending off pressure waves. <a href="Electret_microphone" title="Electret microphone">Electret microphones</a> and <a href="Condenser_microphone" class="mw-redirect" title="Condenser microphone">condenser microphones</a> employ electrostatics—as the sound wave strikes the microphone's diaphragm, it moves and induces a voltage change. The ultrasonic systems used in medical ultrasonography employ piezoelectric transducers. These are made from special ceramics in which mechanical vibrations and electrical fields are interlinked through a property of the material itself.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Acoustician">Acoustician</h2></div>

<p>An acoustician is an expert in the science of sound.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3></div>

<p>There are many types of acoustician, but they usually have a <a href="Bachelor's_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">Bachelor's degree</a> or higher qualification. Some possess a degree in acoustics, while others enter the discipline via studies in fields such as <a href="Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> or <a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>. Much work in acoustics requires a good grounding in <a href="Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a> and <a href="Science" title="Science">science</a>. Many acoustic scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to advance our knowledge of the perception (e.g. <a href="Hearing" title="Hearing">hearing</a>, <a href="Psychoacoustics" title="Psychoacoustics">psychoacoustics</a> or <a href="Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">neurophysiology</a>) of <a href="Speech" title="Speech">speech</a>, <a href="Music" title="Music">music</a> and <a href="Noise" title="Noise">noise</a>. Other acoustic scientists advance understanding of how sound is affected as it moves through environments, e.g. <a href="Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">underwater acoustics</a>, architectural acoustics or <a href="Structural_acoustics" title="Structural acoustics">structural acoustics</a>. Other areas of work are listed under subdisciplines below. Acoustic scientists work in government, university and private industry laboratories. Many go on to work in <a href="Acoustical_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical Engineering">Acoustical Engineering</a>. Some positions, such as <a href="Faculty_(academic_staff)" class="mw-redirect" title="Faculty (academic staff)">Faculty (academic staff)</a> require a <a href="Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subdisciplines">Subdisciplines</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaeoacoustics">Archaeoacoustics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Archaeoacoustics" title="Archaeoacoustics">Archaeoacoustics</a></div>

<p><a href="Archaeoacoustics" title="Archaeoacoustics">Archaeoacoustics</a>, also known as the archaeology of sound, is one of the only ways to experience the past with senses other than our eyes.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeoacoustics is studied by testing the acoustic properties of prehistoric sites, including caves. Iegor Rezkinoff, a sound archaeologist, studies the acoustic properties of caves through natural sounds like humming and whistling.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological theories of acoustics are focused around ritualistic purposes as well as a way of echolocation in the caves. In archaeology, acoustic sounds and rituals directly correlate as specific sounds were meant to bring ritual participants closer to a spiritual awakening.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parallels can also be drawn between cave wall paintings and the acoustic properties of the cave; they are both dynamic.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because archaeoacoustics is a fairly new archaeological subject, acoustic sound is still being tested in these prehistoric sites today.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aeroacoustics">Aeroacoustics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Aeroacoustics" title="Aeroacoustics">Aeroacoustics</a></div>

<p><a href="Aeroacoustics" title="Aeroacoustics">Aeroacoustics</a> is the study of noise generated by air movement, for instance via turbulence, and the movement of sound through the fluid air. This knowledge was applied in the 1920s and '30s to detect aircraft before <a href="Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> was invented and is applied in <a href="Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">acoustical engineering</a> to study how to quieten <a href="Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>. Aeroacoustics is important for understanding how wind <a href="Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">musical instruments</a> work.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acoustic_signal_processing">Acoustic signal processing</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Audio_signal_processing" title="Audio signal processing">Audio signal processing</a></div>

<p>Acoustic signal processing is the electronic manipulation of acoustic signals. Applications include: <a href="Active_noise_control" title="Active noise control">active noise control</a>; design for <a href="Hearing_aid" title="Hearing aid">hearing aids</a> or <a href="Cochlear_implant" title="Cochlear implant">cochlear implants</a>; <a href="Echo_cancellation" class="mw-redirect" title="Echo cancellation">echo cancellation</a>; <a href="Music_information_retrieval" title="Music information retrieval">music information retrieval</a>, and perceptual coding (e.g. <a href="MP3" title="MP3">MP3</a> or <a href="Opus_(audio_format)" title="Opus (audio format)">Opus</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architectural_acoustics">Architectural acoustics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Architectural_acoustics" title="Architectural acoustics">Architectural acoustics</a></div>

<p>Architectural acoustics (also known as building acoustics) involves the scientific understanding of how to achieve good sound within a building.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It typically involves the study of speech intelligibility, speech privacy, music quality, and vibration reduction in the built environment.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commonly studied environments are hospitals, classrooms, dwellings, performance venues, recording and broadcasting studios. Focus considerations include room acoustics, airborne and impact transmission in building structures, airborne and structure-borne noise control, noise control of building systems and electroacoustic systems.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioacoustics">Bioacoustics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Bioacoustics" title="Bioacoustics">Bioacoustics</a></div>

<p><a href="Bioacoustics" title="Bioacoustics">Bioacoustics</a> is the scientific study of the hearing and calls of animal calls, as well as how animals are affected by the acoustic and sounds of their habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electroacoustics">Electroacoustics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Audio_Engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio Engineering">Audio Engineering</a> and <a href="Sound_reinforcement_system" title="Sound reinforcement system">Sound reinforcement system</a></div>

<p>This subdiscipline is concerned with the recording, manipulation and reproduction of audio using electronics.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This might include products such as <a href="Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phones</a>, large scale <a href="Public_address" class="mw-redirect" title="Public address">public address</a> systems or <a href="Virtual_reality" title="Virtual reality">virtual reality</a> systems in research laboratories.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_noise_and_soundscapes">Environmental noise and soundscapes</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Environmental_noise" title="Environmental noise">Environmental noise</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise pollution</a> and <a href="Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></div>

<p>Environmental acoustics is the study of noise and vibrations, and their impact on structures, objects, humans, and animals.

</p><p>The main aim of these studies is to reduce levels of environmental noise and vibration. Typical work and research within environmental acoustics concerns the development of models used in simulations, measurement techniques, noise mitigation strategies, and the development of standards and regulations. Research work now also has a focus on the positive use of sound in urban environments: <a href="Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscapes</a> and <a href="Tranquility" class="mw-redirect" title="Tranquility">tranquility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Examples of noise and vibration sources include railways,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> road traffic, aircraft, industrial equipment and recreational activities.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Musical_acoustics">Musical acoustics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Musical_acoustics" title="Musical acoustics">Musical acoustics</a></div>

<p>Musical acoustics is the study of the physics of acoustic instruments; the <a href="Audio_signal_processing" title="Audio signal processing">audio signal processing</a> used in electronic music; the computer analysis of music and composition, and the perception and <a href="Cognitive_neuroscience_of_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive neuroscience of music">cognitive neuroscience of music</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychoacoustics">Psychoacoustics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Psychoacoustics" title="Psychoacoustics">Psychoacoustics</a></div>

<p>Many studies have been conducted to identify the relationship between acoustics and <a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a>, or more commonly known as <a href="Psychoacoustics" title="Psychoacoustics">psychoacoustics</a>, in which what one hears is a combination of perception and biological aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The information intercepted by the passage of sound waves through the ear is understood and interpreted through the brain, emphasizing the connection between the mind and acoustics. Psychological changes have been seen as brain waves slow down or speed up as a result of varying auditory stimulus which can in turn affect the way one thinks, feels, or even behaves.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This correlation can be viewed in normal, everyday situations in which listening to an upbeat or uptempo song can cause one's foot to start tapping or a slower song can leave one feeling calm and serene. In a deeper biological look at the phenomenon of psychoacoustics, it was discovered that the central nervous system is activated by basic acoustical characteristics of music.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By observing how the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spine, is influenced by acoustics, the pathway in which acoustic affects the mind, and essentially the body, is evident.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speech">Speech</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Speech" title="Speech">Speech</a></div>

<p>Acousticians study the production, processing and perception of speech. <a href="Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a> and <a href="Speech_synthesis" title="Speech synthesis">Speech synthesis</a> are two important areas of speech processing using computers. The subject also overlaps with the disciplines of physics, <a href="Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_Vibration_and_Dynamics">Structural Vibration and Dynamics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Vibration" title="Vibration">Vibration</a></div>

<p>Structural acoustics is the study of motions and interactions of mechanical systems with their environments and the methods of their measurement, analysis, and control. There are several sub-disciplines found within this regime:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Modal_Analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Modal Analysis">Modal Analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Material_characterization" class="mw-redirect" title="Material characterization">Material characterization</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_health_monitoring" title="Structural health monitoring">Structural health monitoring</a></li>

<li>Acoustic <a href="Metamaterials" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamaterials">Metamaterials</a></li>

<li><a href="Friction_Acoustics" title="Friction Acoustics">Friction Acoustics</a></li></ul>

<p>Applications might include: <a href="Ground_vibrations" title="Ground vibrations">ground vibrations</a> from railways; <a href="Vibration_isolation" title="Vibration isolation">vibration isolation</a> to reduce vibration in operating theatres; studying how vibration can damage health (<a href="Vibration_white_finger" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibration white finger">vibration white finger</a>); <a href="Vibration_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibration control">vibration control</a> to protect a building from earthquakes, or measuring how structure-borne sound moves through buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ultrasonics">Ultrasonics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">Ultrasound</a></div>

<p>Ultrasonics deals with sounds at frequencies too high to be heard by humans. Specialisms include medical ultrasonics (including medical ultrasonography), <a href="Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">sonochemistry</a>, <a href="Ultrasonic_testing" title="Ultrasonic testing">ultrasonic testing</a>, material characterisation and underwater acoustics (<a href="Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Underwater_acoustics">Underwater acoustics</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></div>

<p>Underwater acoustics is the scientific study of natural and man-made sounds underwater. Applications include <a href="Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a> to locate <a href="Submarines" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarines">submarines</a>, <a href="Whale_vocalization" title="Whale vocalization">underwater communication by whales</a>, <a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> monitoring by measuring <a href="Sea_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea temperature">sea temperatures</a> acoustically, <a href="Sonic_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonic weapons">sonic weapons</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and marine bioacoustics.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Professional_societies">Professional societies</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Acoustical_Society_of_America" title="Acoustical Society of America">The Acoustical Society of America</a> (ASA)</li>

<li>Australian Acoustical Society (AAS)</li>

<li>The European Acoustics Association (EAA)</li>

<li><a href="Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a> (IEEE)</li>

<li><a href="Institute_of_Acoustics_(United_Kingdom)" title="Institute of Acoustics (United Kingdom)">Institute of Acoustics</a> (IoA UK)</li>

<li><a href="Audio_Engineering_Society" title="Audio Engineering Society">The Audio Engineering Society</a> (AES)</li>

<li><a href="American_Society_of_Mechanical_Engineers" title="American Society of Mechanical Engineers">American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Noise Control and Acoustics Division</a> (ASME-NCAD)</li>

<li><a href="International_Commission_for_Acoustics" title="International Commission for Acoustics">International Commission for Acoustics</a> (ICA)</li>

<li><a href="American_Institute_of_Aeronautics_and_Astronautics" title="American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics">American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Aeroacoustics </a> (AIAA)</li>

<li><a href="International_Computer_Music_Association" title="International Computer Music Association">International Computer Music Association</a> (ICMA)</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_journals">Academic journals</h3></div>

<ul><li>Acoustics | An Open Access Journal from MDPI</li>

<li><a href="Acoustics_Today" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustics Today">Acoustics Today</a></li>

<li>Acta Acustica united with Acustica</li>

<li>Advances in Acoustics and Vibration</li>

<li><a href="Applied_Acoustics" title="Applied Acoustics">Applied Acoustics</a></li>

<li>Building Acoustics</li>

<li><a href="IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a> Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control</li>

<li><a href="Journal_of_the_Acoustical_Society_of_America" title="Journal of the Acoustical Society of America">Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</a> (JASA)</li>

<li>Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Express Letters (JASA-EL)</li>

<li>Journal of the <a href="Audio_Engineering_Society" title="Audio Engineering Society">Audio Engineering Society</a></li>

<li><a href="Journal_of_Sound_and_Vibration" title="Journal of Sound and Vibration">Journal of Sound and Vibration</a> (JSV)</li>

<li>Journal of Vibration and Acoustics <a href="American_Society_of_Mechanical_Engineers" title="American Society of Mechanical Engineers">American Society of Mechanical Engineers</a></li>

<li>MDPI Acoustics</li>

<li>Noise Control Engineering Journal</li>

<li>SAE International Journal of Vehicle Dynamics, Stability and NVH</li>

<li><a href="Ultrasonics_(journal)" title="Ultrasonics (journal)">Ultrasonics (journal)</a></li>

<li>Ultrasonics Sonochemistry</li>

<li>Wave Motion</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conferences">Conferences</h3></div>

<ul><li>InterNoise</li>

<li>NoiseCon</li>

<li>Forum Acousticum</li>

<li>SAE Noise and Vibration Conference and Exhibition</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_acoustics" title="Outline of acoustics">Outline of acoustics</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_attenuation" title="Acoustic attenuation">Acoustic attenuation</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_emission" title="Acoustic emission">Acoustic emission</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustic engineering">Acoustic engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_impedance" title="Acoustic impedance">Acoustic impedance</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_levitation" title="Acoustic levitation">Acoustic levitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_location" title="Acoustic location">Acoustic location</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_phonetics" title="Acoustic phonetics">Acoustic phonetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_streaming" title="Acoustic streaming">Acoustic streaming</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_tags" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustic tags">Acoustic tags</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_theory" title="Acoustic theory">Acoustic theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_thermometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustic thermometry">Acoustic thermometry</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_wave" title="Acoustic wave">Acoustic wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Architectural_acoustics" title="Architectural acoustics">Architectural acoustics</a></li>

<li><a href="Audiology" title="Audiology">Audiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_illusion" title="Auditory illusion">Auditory illusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Diffraction" title="Diffraction">Diffraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Doppler_effect" title="Doppler effect">Doppler effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Fisheries_acoustics" title="Fisheries acoustics">Fisheries acoustics</a></li>

<li>Friction acoustics</li>

<li><a href="Helioseismology" title="Helioseismology">Helioseismology</a></li>

<li><a href="Linear_elasticity" title="Linear elasticity">Linear elasticity</a></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Little_Red_Book_of_Acoustics" title="The Little Red Book of Acoustics">The Little Red Book of Acoustics</a></i> (in the UK)</li>

<li><a href="Longitudinal_wave" title="Longitudinal wave">Longitudinal wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Musicology" title="Musicology">Musicology</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_therapy" title="Music therapy">Music therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise pollution</a></li>

<li><a href="Phonon" title="Phonon">Phonon</a></li>

<li><a href="Picosecond_ultrasonics" title="Picosecond ultrasonics">Picosecond ultrasonics</a></li>

<li><a href="Rayleigh_wave" title="Rayleigh wave">Rayleigh wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">Shock wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sonification" title="Sonification">Sonification</a></li>

<li><a href="Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li>

<li><a href="Soundscape" title="Soundscape">Soundscape</a></li>

<li><a href="Sonic_boom" title="Sonic boom">Sonic boom</a></li>

<li><a href="Sonoluminescence" title="Sonoluminescence">Sonoluminescence</a></li>

<li><a href="Surface_acoustic_wave" title="Surface acoustic wave">Surface acoustic wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Thermoacoustics" title="Thermoacoustics">Thermoacoustics</a></li>

<li><a href="Transverse_wave" title="Transverse wave">Transverse wave</a></li>

<li><a href="Wave_equation" title="Wave equation">Wave equation</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acoustics.byu.edu/what-is">"What is acoustics?"</a>, <i>Acoustical Research Group</i>, Brigham Young University, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210416224358/https://acoustics.byu.edu/what-is">archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-16<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-16</span></span></cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:2-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_Neville_Westerman1947" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth Neville Westerman (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xNQrAAAAMAAJ"><i>Emergent Voice</i></a>. C. F. Westerman. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230301145219/https://books.google.com/books?id=xNQrAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-02-28</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C. Boyer and <a href="Uta_Merzbach" title="Uta Merzbach">U. Merzbach</a>. <i>A History of Mathematics.</i> Wiley 1991, p. 55.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9912.pdf">"How Sound Propagates"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Princeton University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s9912.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite> (quoting from Aristotle's <i>Treatise on Sound and Hearing</i>)</span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWhewell,_William,_1794–1866." class="citation book cs1">Whewell, William, 1794–1866. <i>History of the inductive sciences : from the earliest to the present times. Volume 2</i>. Cambridge. p. 295. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-511-73434-2</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/889953932">889953932</a>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Greek musical writings</i>. Barker, Andrew (1st pbk. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004. p. 98. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-38911-9</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/63122899">63122899</a>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (link)</span></span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ACOUSTICS, Bruce Lindsay, Dowden – Hutchingon Books Publishers, Chapter 3</span>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vitruvius Pollio, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vitruviustenbook00vitr_0"><i>Vitruvius, the Ten Books on Architecture</i></a> (1914) Tr. Morris Hickey Morgan BookV, Sec.6–8</span>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernst Mach, Introduction to <i>The Science of Mechanics: A Critical and Historical Account of its Development</i> (1893, 1960) Tr. Thomas J. McCormack</span>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSparavigna2013" class="citation journal cs1">Sparavigna, Amelia Carolina (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ijsciences.com/pub/pdf/V220131220.pdf">"The Science of Al-Biruni"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Journal of Sciences</i>. <b>2</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">52–</span>60. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1312.7288">1312.7288</a></span>. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013arXiv1312.7288S">2013arXiv1312.7288S</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18483%2FijSci.364">10.18483/ijSci.364</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119230163">119230163</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180721215451/https://www.ijsciences.com/pub/pdf/V220131220.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2018-07-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-11-04</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161121101131/http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Al-Biruni.html">"Abu Arrayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni"</a>. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. November 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Al-Biruni.html">the original</a> on 2016-11-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-20</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Findlen, <i>Athanasius Kircher: The Last Man who Knew Everything</i>, Routledge, 2004, p. 8 and p. 23.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Athanasius Kircher, <i>Musurgia universalis sive Ars magna consoni et dissoni</i>, Romae, typis Ludovici Grignani, 1650</span>

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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Athanasius Kircher, <i>Phonurgia nova, sive conjugium mechanico-physicum artis & natvrae paranympha phonosophia concinnatum</i>, Campidonae: Rudolphum Dreherr, 1673.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPierce,_Allan_D.1989" class="citation book cs1">Pierce, Allan D. (1989). <i>Acoustics : an introduction to its physical principles and applications</i> (1989 ed.). Woodbury, N.Y.: Acoustical Society of America. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-88318-612-8</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/21197318">21197318</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:0-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFClemens2016" class="citation web cs1">Clemens, Martin J. (2016-01-31). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dailygrail.com/2016/01/archaeoacoustics-listening-to-the-sounds-of-history/">"Archaeoacoustics: Listening to the Sounds of History"</a>. <i>The Daily Grail</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190413223442/https://www.dailygrail.com/2016/01/archaeoacoustics-listening-to-the-sounds-of-history/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-04-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-13</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:1-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs2017" class="citation web cs1">Jacobs, Emma (2017-04-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/archaeoacoustics">"With Archaeoacoustics, Researchers Listen for Clues to the Prehistoric Past"</a>. <i>Atlas Obscura</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190413221942/https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/archaeoacoustics">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-04-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-13</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFda_Silva2009" class="citation book cs1">da Silva, Andrey Ricardo (2009). <i>Aeroacoustics of Wind Instruments: Investigations and Numerical Methods</i>. VDM Verlag. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3639210644</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSlaneyPatrick_A._Naylor2011" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="Malcolm_Slaney" title="Malcolm Slaney">Slaney, Malcolm</a>; Patrick A. Naylor (2011). "Trends in Audio and Acoustic Signal Processing". <i><a href="ICASSP" class="mw-redirect" title="ICASSP">ICASSP</a></i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMorfey2001" class="citation book cs1">Morfey, Christopher (2001). <i>Dictionary of Acoustics</i>. Academic Press. p. 32.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTempleton1993" class="citation book cs1">Templeton, Duncan (1993). <i>Acoustics in the Built Environment: Advice for the Design Team</i>. Architectural Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0750605380</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioacoustics.info/">"Bioacoustics - the International Journal of Animal Sound and its Recording"</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120905120546/http://www.bioacoustics.info/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAcoustical_Society_of_America" class="citation web cs1">Acoustical Society of America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904010934/http://asaweb.devcloud.acquia-sites.com/education_outreach/careers_in_acoustics">"Acoustics and You (A Career in Acoustics?)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asaweb.devcloud.acquia-sites.com/education_outreach/careers_in_acoustics">the original</a> on 2015-09-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKang2006" class="citation book cs1">Kang, Jian (2006). <i>Urban Sound Environment</i>. CRC Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0415358576</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/136466/e94888.pdf"><i>Burden of disease from environmental noise</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>. 2011. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-92-890-0229-5</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/136466/e94888.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-09.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFTechnical_Committee_on_Musical_Acoustics_(TCMU)_of_the_Acoustical_Society_of_America_(ASA)" class="citation web cs1">Technical Committee on Musical Acoustics (TCMU) of the Acoustical Society of America (ASA). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010613120620/http://www.public.coe.edu/~jcotting/tcmu/">"ASA TCMU Home Page"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.public.coe.edu/~jcotting/tcmu/">the original</a> on 2001-06-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFIakovidesIliadouBizeliKaprinis2004" class="citation journal cs1">Iakovides, Stefanos A.; Iliadou, Vassiliki TH; Bizeli, Vassiliki TH; Kaprinis, Stergios G.; Fountoulakis, Konstantinos N.; Kaprinis, George S. (2004-03-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC400748">"Psychophysiology and psychoacoustics of music: Perception of complex sound in normal subjects and psychiatric patients"</a>. <i>Annals of General Hospital Psychiatry</i>. <b>3</b> (1): 6. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1475-2832-3-6">10.1186/1475-2832-3-6</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1475-2832">1475-2832</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC400748">400748</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15050030">15050030</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memtechacoustical.com/psychoacoustics/">"Psychoacoustics: The Power of Sound"</a>. <i>Memtech Acoustical</i>. 2016-02-11. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190415003935/http://memtechacoustical.com/psychoacoustics/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-04-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-14</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:02-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFGreen1960" class="citation journal cs1">Green, David M. (1960). "Psychoacoustics and Detection Theory". <i>The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America</i>. <b>32</b> (10): <span class="nowrap">1189–</span>1203. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1960ASAJ...32.1189G">1960ASAJ...32.1189G</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.1907882">10.1121/1.1907882</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-4966">0001-4966</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tcscasa.org/">"Technical Committee on Speech Communication"</a>. Acoustical Society of America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181105110754/https://tcscasa.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-11-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-11-04</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tcsaasa.org/">"Structural Acoustics & Vibration Technical Committee"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180810080424/http://tcsaasa.org/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 August 2018.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEnsminger2012" class="citation book cs1">Ensminger, Dale (2012). <i>Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technologies, and Applications</i>. CRC Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>2.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFD._Lohse,_B._Schmitz_&_M._Versluis2001" class="citation journal cs1">D. Lohse, B. Schmitz & M. Versluis (2001). "Snapping shrimp make flashing bubbles". <i><a href="Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>413</b> (6855): <span class="nowrap">477–</span>478. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Natur.413..477L">2001Natur.413..477L</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F35097152">10.1038/35097152</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11586346">11586346</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4429684">4429684</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFASA_Underwater_Acoustics_Technical_Committee" class="citation web cs1">ASA Underwater Acoustics Technical Committee. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130730104616/http://www.apl.washington.edu/projects/ASA-UATC/index.php">"Underwater Acoustics"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apl.washington.edu/projects/ASA-UATC/index.php">the original</a> on 30 July 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAttenboroughPostema2008" class="citation book cs1">Attenborough K, Postema M (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03188302/document"><i>A pocket-sized introduction to acoustics</i></a>. Kingston upon Hull: University of Hull. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.7504060">10.5281/zenodo.7504060</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-90-812588-2-1</bdi>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)</span></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Benade AH (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofmu0000bena"><i>Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-502030-4</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2270137">2270137</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Biryukov SV, Gulyaev YV, Krylov VV, Plessky VP (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WR-jfwMnDYYC"><i>Surface Acoustic Waves in Inhomogeneous Media</i></a>. Heidelberg: Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-540-58460-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Crocker MJ, ed. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofac0003unse_l4l2/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Encyclopedia of Acoustics</i></a>. Hoboken: Wiley. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/441305164">441305164</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Falkovich G (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.weizmann.ac.il/complex/falkovich/fluid-mechanics"><i>Fluid Mechanics, a short course for physicists</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-107-00575-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Fahy FJ, Gardonio P (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=caelfFmWC28C"><i>Sound and Structural Vibration: Radiation, Transmission and Response</i></a> (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-08-047110-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Junger MC, Feit D (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140605030702/http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/sound-structures-and-their-interaction"><i>Sound, Structures and Their Interaction</i></a> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: MIT Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/books/sound-structures-and-their-interaction">the original</a> on 2014-06-05.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1">Kinsler LE (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofac00kins/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Fundamentals of Acoustics</i></a></span> (4th ed.). Hoboken: Wiley. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-04718-4-789-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMasonThurston1981" class="citation book cs1">Mason WP, Thurston RN (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131225161706/http://librarum.org/book/2513/1"><i>Physical Acoustics</i></a>. Heidelberg: Springer. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://librarum.org/book/2513/1">the original</a> on 2013-12-25.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMorseIngard1986" class="citation book cs1">Morse PM, Ingard KU (1986). <i>Theoretical Acoustics</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-691-08425-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPierce1989" class="citation book cs1">Pierce AD (1989). <i>Acoustics: An Introduction to its Physical Principles and Applications</i>. Melville: Acoustical Society of America. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-88318-612-8</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRaichel2006" class="citation book cs1">Raichel DR (2006). <i>The Science and Applications of Acoustics</i> (2nd ed.). Heidelberg: Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-387-30089-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLord_Rayleigh1894" class="citation book cs1">Lord Rayleigh (1894). <i>The Theory of Sound</i>. New York: Dover. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8446-3028-1</bdi>.</cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSkudrzyk1971" class="citation book cs1">Skudrzyk E (1971). <i>The Foundations of Acoustics: Basic Mathematics and Basic Acoustics</i>. Heidelberg: Springer.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFStephensBate1966" class="citation book cs1">Stephens RW, Bate AE (1966). <i>Acoustics and Vibrational Physics</i> (2nd ed.). London: Edward Arnold.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWilson2006" class="citation book cs1">Wilson CE (2006). <i>Noise Control</i> (Revised ed.). Malabar: Krieger. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-57524-237-8</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59223706">59223706</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Acoustics" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Acoustics">Acoustics</a></span>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">English <a href="Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article:

<div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work/Acoustics" class="extiw external" title="s:en:The New Student's Reference Work/Acoustics">Acoustics</a></b></div></div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Acoustics" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Acoustics">Acoustics</a></b></i></div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icacommission.org/">International Commission for Acoustics</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://euracoustics.org">European Acoustics Association</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://acousticalsociety.org/">Acoustical Society of America</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inceusa.org/">Institute of Noise Control Engineers</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncac.com/">National Council of Acoustical Consultants</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ioa.org.uk/">Institute of Acoustic in UK</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.acoustics.org.au/">Australian Acoustical Society (AAS) </a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Major_branches_of_physics48" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">branches of physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a>

<ul><li><a href="Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></li>

<li><a href="Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Computational_physics" title="Computational physics">Computational</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Classical mechanics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Newton's_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newtonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Analytical_mechanics" title="Analytical mechanics">Analytical</a></li>

<li><a href="Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuum_mechanics" title="Continuum mechanics">Continuum</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Classical_electromagnetism" title="Classical electromagnetism">Classical electromagnetism</a></li>

<li><a href="Classical_optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical optics">Classical optics</a>

<li><a href="Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-equilibrium_thermodynamics" title="Non-equilibrium thermodynamics">Non-equilibrium</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Relativistic_mechanics" title="Relativistic mechanics">Relativistic mechanics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">Special</a></li>

<li><a href="General_relativity" title="General relativity">General</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Atomic%2C_molecular%2C_and_optical_physics" title="Atomic, molecular, and optical physics">Atomic, molecular, and optical physics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular</a></li>

<li><a href="Optics#Modern_optics" title="Optics">Modern optics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">Condensed matter physics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">Solid-state physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Atmospheric_physics" title="Atmospheric physics">Atmospheric physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Ocean physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics education</a>

<ul><li><a href="Physics_education_research" title="Physics education research">research</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">Timeline of physics discoveries</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Acoustics243" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Acoustics243" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Acoustical_engineering" title="Acoustical engineering">Acoustical engineering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Architectural_acoustics" title="Architectural acoustics">Architectural acoustics</a></li>

<li><a href="Monochord" title="Monochord">Monochord</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverberation" title="Reverberation">Reverberation</a></li>

<li><a href="Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li>

<li><a href="String_vibration" title="String vibration">String vibration</a></li>

<li><a href="Sympathetic_resonance" title="Sympathetic resonance">Sympathetic resonance</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"></span></li><li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Spectrogram" title="Spectrogram">Spectrogram</a></span></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Psychoacoustics" title="Psychoacoustics">Psychoacoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">Pitch</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bark_scale" title="Bark scale">Bark scale</a></li>

<li><a href="Mel_scale" title="Mel scale">Mel scale</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Equal-loudness_contour" title="Equal-loudness contour">Equal-loudness contour</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fletcher%E2%80%93Munson_curves" class="mw-redirect" title="Fletcher–Munson curves">Fletcher–Munson curves</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Audio_frequency" title="Audio frequency">Audio frequency</a> and <a href="Pitch_(music)" title="Pitch (music)">pitch</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Formant" title="Formant">Formant</a></li>

<li><a href="Fundamental_frequency" title="Fundamental frequency">Fundamental frequency</a></li>

<li><a href="Frequency_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequency spectrum">Frequency spectrum</a>

<ul><li><a href="Harmonic_spectrum" title="Harmonic spectrum">harmonic spectrum</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Harmonic" title="Harmonic">Harmonic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Harmonic_series_(music)" title="Harmonic series (music)">Series</a></li>

<li><a href="Inharmonicity" title="Inharmonicity">Inharmonicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Missing_fundamental" title="Missing fundamental">Missing fundamental</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Combination_tone" title="Combination tone">Combination tone</a></li>

<li><a href="Mersenne's_laws" title="Mersenne's laws">Mersenne's laws</a></li>

<li><a href="Overtone" title="Overtone">Overtone</a></li>

<li><a href="Acoustic_resonance" title="Acoustic resonance">Resonance</a></li>

<li><a href="Standing_wave" title="Standing wave">Standing wave</a>

<li><a href="Undertone_series" title="Undertone series">Subharmonic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Acousticians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="John_Backus_(acoustician)" title="John Backus (acoustician)">John Backus</a></li>

<li><a href="Jens_Blauert" title="Jens Blauert">Jens Blauert</a></li>

<li><a href="Ernst_Chladni" title="Ernst Chladni">Ernst Chladni</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_von_Helmholtz" title="Hermann von Helmholtz">Hermann von Helmholtz</a></li>

<li><a href="Carleen_Hutchins" title="Carleen Hutchins">Carleen Hutchins</a></li>

<li><a href="Franz_Melde" title="Franz Melde">Franz Melde</a></li>

<li><a href="Marin_Mersenne" title="Marin Mersenne">Marin Mersenne</a></li>

<li><a href="Werner_Meyer-Eppler" title="Werner Meyer-Eppler">Werner Meyer-Eppler</a></li>

<li><a href="John_William_Strutt%2C_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" class="mw-redirect" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Sauveur" title="Joseph Sauveur">Joseph Sauveur</a></li>

<li><a href="D._Van_Holliday" title="D. Van Holliday">D. Van Holliday</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Infrasound" title="Infrasound">Infrasound</a></li>

<li><a href="Sound" title="Sound">Sound</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">Ultrasound</a></li>

<li><a href="Musical_acoustics" title="Musical acoustics">Musical acoustics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Piano_acoustics" title="Piano acoustics">Piano</a></li>

<li><a href="Violin_acoustics" title="Violin acoustics">Violin</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

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